On September 11, 2001, the world learned in the starkest way imaginable that a human being on a suicide mission can be deadlier than any laser-guided missile.
On that day, we realised that there is no foolproof technological defence against terrorists whose preferred reward is their own violent death and, as they believe, a subsequent eternity in paradise.
Below is the reporting of NewScientist.com of the events of September 11 and the week following it. It traces the human tragedy, the search for the survivors and the hunt for the perpetrators. It also analyses how science and technology can help prevent such attacks in the future, as well as how they failed in the past.
Latest on the repercussions of September 11
Aftermath: Buildings
Twin tower collapse theory challenged
US officials will soon be testing whether thicker insulation on steel structures could have prevented the collapse of the World Trade Center towers
5 Feb 03
World Trade Center replacements unveiled
Seven finalists in an international competition to design new buildings for the devastated site reveal their proposals in New York
19 Dec 02
Twin beams light up New York
Two ghostly towers of light lit up the NYC skyline on the six-month anniversary of the September 11 attacks
12 Mar 02
Ground Zero's fires still burning
Twelve weeks after the terrorist atrocity in New York, the flames have still to be extinguished - it is the lengthiest structural fire in history
3 Dec 01
Toxic chemicals released from World Trade Center wreckage
High levels of benzene, dioxins and other toxins are being released from the still-smouldering remains
29 Oct 01
Concrete problem set in New York
Building and repair work needs concrete, but traffic chaos means that batches cannot arrive at sites before setting
3 Oct 01
Global handling of disaster investigations inadequate
International co-ordination must improve, says a UK expert, or errors made after Chernobyl's explosion will be repeated - perhaps after terrorist attacks
21 Sep 01
Fighting fires in the sky
The twin towers turned into a death trap - building design and evacuation procedures may never be the same again
19 Sep 01
New York subway at risk of major flood
Huge concrete plugs are part of plans being drawn up to prevent underground flooding
19 Sep 01
Design choice for towers saved lives
Building the World Trade Center towers with an external "steel tube" and internal supports prevented immediate collapse
12 Sep 01
Aftermath: Aviation Security
'Soft walls' will keep hijacked planes at bay
An avionics system that creates no-fly zones that pilots cannot breach could protect city centres and other likely terrorist targets
2 Jul 03
Terror warning over electronic equipment
Airliners could brought down by terrorists using modified versions of laptops or radios, US security expert says
11 Sep 02
Hidden cameras to monitor aircraft passengers
To combat hijacking, Airbus is planning to build concealed cameras into the light fittings above the seats in its aircraft
8 May 02
United Airlines installs stun guns
All 530 aircraft will stow the weapons, the first response involving arms by a major carrier to the 11 September hijackings
16 Nov 01
Pentagon considers ear-blasting anti-hijack gun
Weapons that fire high-intensity "sonic bullets" could be used to incapacitate hijackers of passenger aircraft
14 Nov 01
Intelligence analysis software could predict attacks
A program that can spot suspicious patterns of behaviour in vast quantities of data may help prevent terrorist atrocities
2 Oct 01
Armed guards get go-ahead on US flights
President Bush backs armed "air marshals", but others argue the move could increase the risk to passengers
27 Sep 01
Defeating the suicide hijackers
How can we stop terrorists seizing control of a plane - closed cockpits, biometric protection of the controls or autopilots?
19 Sep 01
Controlling encryption will not stop terrorists
Computer scientists say US hopes of curtailing terrorist communications by controlling crytographic software are flawed
18 Sep 01
Tighter security promised for US flights
Hijackers took advantage of lax security on domestic US flights, say experts, but even the toughest measures may not have prevented the attacks
12 Sep 01
Autopilot could land hijacked planes
Most aircraft now have systems that could allow the ground controllers to land an aircraft - but there are risks
12 Sep 01
The Investigation
Search goes on for World Trade Center's missing
The arduous task of identifying New York's victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks is still years from completion
7 Mar 03
Iraq invasion could 'worsen terrorist threat'
An influential think tank warns that "regime change" could disperse weapons stockpiles into the murky world of global terrorism
18 Sep 02
September 11 anniversary brings new identification effort
Forensic experts are turning to a different DNA analysis technique in a bid to complete the grim task of identifying all the dead
11 Sep 02
Jet trails make climate milder
Aeroplane vapour trails reduce the temperature extremes felt on Earth, says a study made possible by the events of September 11
7 Aug 02
Silent sensors lie in wait for bin Laden
Devices scattered throughout the Afghanistan mountains - alert to movement, heat and vibration - will be playing a key part in the US search
21 Nov 01
Snow and lofty terrain will hamper war on terrorists
Cloud cover and snow in Afghanistan will preclude laser-guided bombing and few support aircraft operate well at high altitudes
26 Sep 01
Double DNA analysis to identify New York dead
Both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA will be used, but with a million body parts expected, the gruesome task will take many months
25 Sep 01
Massive search reveals no secret code in web images
Contradicting FBI claims about terrorist technology, a new study finds no hidden messages within millions of web images
25 Sep 01
Intelligence technology zooms in on Afghanistan
Military agencies are scouring the ground and airwaves for traces of Osama Bin Laden
18 Sep 01
Black box recorders recovered from crash sites
Devices found at the Pentagon and near Pittsburgh, but World Trade Center collapse may have crushed others
14 Sep 01
Intelligence technology may not stop terrorists
Determined terrorist groups can mix hi-tech and low-tech approaches to confound the intelligence services
13 Sep 01
Trained pilots likely in hijack gangs
Experts believe that hijackers seized the controls of the doomed aircraft and must have had some flying expertise
12 Sep 01
Rescue Efforts
September 11 blood donations "wasted"
Less than one per cent of the blood donated in response to the September 11 attacks was used to treat victims
21 Feb 02
Counting the World Trade Center dead may be impossible
Large discrepancies in the estimated death toll may be unavoidable - technology is only of limited help
26 Oct 01
Robots join search and rescue teams
Rescuers sifting the World Trade Center rubble are carrying out most of their grim task by hand, but robots have also been on the scene
19 Sep 01
Rumours of further collapse thwart rescue efforts
False suggestions that more Manhattan buildings are close to collapse are hampering the rescue effort, says a senior structural engineer
14 Sep 01
Search and rescue teams face unprecedented challenge
The scale of the World Trade Center rubble makes finding people extremely hard and identifying every body may be impossible
13 Sep 01
Internet aids US disaster communications
The terrorist atrocities in the US demonstrate how important the internet can be for emergency communications
13 Sep 01
Smoke and dust threaten New Yorkers
The smouldering remains of the World Trade Center poses serious risk to survivors - asbestos release is also a fear
13 Sep 01
Survivors pulled alive from New York's rubble
Eight people are found alive in the wreckage of the World Trade Center, but many thousands have died in the unprecedented terrorist attack
12 Sep 01
Attacks
Aghanistan to be rebuilt from bottom up
An unprecedented experiment in creating a nation is about to begin, with solar panels and small hydroelectricity schemes key
21 Jan 02
Mass starvation averted in Afghanistan
A larger than expected influx of food aid in December should prevent widespread famine, says UN agency
4 Jan 02
Afghanistan faces an environmental crisis
The US bombing campaign is conspiring with years of civil conflict and drought to create a catastrophe for fauna and flora
2 Jan 02
Humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan worsens
Uzbekistan closes its border port to Afghanistan, delaying desperately needed aid convoys - millions are at risk of starvation
4 Dec 01
Taliban nuclear documents mirror spoof article
Documents found in a Kabul recruitment centre, apparently describing how to build a nuclear bomb, may not be as frightening as they seem
19 Nov 01
US government buys up rights to satellite pictures of Aghanistan
Exclusive rights to images from Ikonos - the world's most advanced commercial imaging satellite - will stop pictures falling into the hands of the Taliban, the Pentagon says
17 Oct 01
Food convoys returning to Afghanistan
Almost 100 trucks are currently ferrying in aid from neighbouring countries - but deliveries will still fall way short of October's target
12 Oct 01
Surveillance pictures show Afghan attack damage
Images reveal some precision strikes by the US-led coalition, but UN workers are killed by a stray cruise missile
10 Oct 01
Psychological warfare waged in Afghanistan
Leaflet drops and radio broadcasts aimed at winning over civilians and demoralising the Taliban are in use to try to shorten the conflict
10 Oct 01
Damage assessment critical to Afghanistan mission
Despite sophisticated surveillance, determining if targets have been hit is difficult, especially if the opposition fake a direct hit
9 Oct 01
Missile strikes begin "war on terrorism"
Missile attacks and bombing hits Afghanistan - hitting targets accurately will be crucial to avoiding civilian casualties and preserving the political coalition
8 Oct 01
Weeks before enduring psychological impact is revealed
Seven days after the terrorist atrocities in the US, the physical toll is becoming clear - but the mental toll will take longer to assess
18 Sep 01
Terrorist damage visible even from space
Satellites and the crew of the International Space Station view the destruction inflicted by the suicidal terrorists
13 Sep 01
Shock wave brings down third New York tower
A 200-metre shock wave caused by the World Trade Center's collapse, along with an ensuing fire, destroys a nearby 47-story building
12 Sep 01
America counts its dead
Many thousands of people have been killed by the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
12 Sep 01
Terrorists crash aeroplanes into World Trade Center and Pentagon
Suicide bombers in hijacked aeroplanes destroy some of America's highest profile buildings, with huge loss of life
11 Sep 01
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